The Legal Issues
Whether you actually planned to breed your sugar gliders, or it just happened unexpectedly, sugar gliders are considered exotic animals and the transfer of ownership is strictly regulated by the USDA.  This directly affects the owner of a pregnant sugar glider because federal law controls the sale, trade, or free exchange of exotic animals and their offspring.  If you are not a licensed as a breeder by the USDA, it is best to have your male sugar glider neutered or to purchase a same sex pair.  There is no such designation as a “hobby breeder” where exotic animals are concerned.  It is a violation of federal law to sell, trade, or give away sugar glider joeys without a proper license.  The USDA actively searches for this type of activity and violators are subject to prosecution resulting in heavy fines and some cases imprisonment.  Even with the best of intentions, it is still possible to find yourself with weaned joeys before your license is issued.  Please keep in mind that the entire application and inspection process can take three to eight months, depending on your preparation level and the workload of your inspector.  Remember to apply early and allow ample time for processing.

Anatomy
     All sugar gliders have secondary sex characteristics called scent glands.  A mature sugar glider is easily spotted by the bald, sometimes crusted, scent patches located on both his head and chest.  The male uses these scent glands to mark his territory by rubbing them against objects and leaving a slight musky odor behind.  The dominant male will mark other members of his colony as well as his territory.  Male sugar gliders are known to produce a slight burst of scent when awakened, startled, or frightened.  A female sugar glider also has scent glands, but they are not as prominent as the male’s.  The female sugar glider’s scent gland is located in her pouch.  In addition, both male and female sugar gliders have scent glands in the urogenital area, as well as minor scent glands located on the surfaces of paws, in the external ear, and in the corners of their mouths.
     The cloacal aperture is a universal opening, present in both sexes.  The bowels, urinary tract, and reproductive systems all open into this communal area that is best described as a “common sewer.” In male sugar gliders, the penis may sometimes be spotted protruding from the opening.  To the inexperienced owner this may seem alarming, since at first glance many may mistake the penis for a parasite or a prolapsed rectum.  The male sugar glider’s sigmoid-shaped penis actually appears as a red thread-like structure with a bifurcated tip, slightly resembling a snakes forked tongue.  Another prominent feature of the male sugar glider is a small furry pea-shaped sac that contains the male’s testicles, located about where we would imagine that a “belly button” would be. At this same location on a female sugar glider, the marsupium, or pouch is present.  The female’s pouch contains four nipples.  Each nipple is capable of producing a different type of milk tailored to the offspring’s current stage of development.  Internally, the reproductive organs of a female sugar glider consist of two ovaries, two oviducts, two uteri, and two vaginas that open into the urogenital sinus followed by the cloacal aperture. Female sugar gliders give birth, after only a 16-day gestation period, through a temporary birth canal that dissipates again shortly after the birth of the joey.  Typically, a female sugar glider gives birth to only one or two joeys per cycle.  Occasionally, a third joey is born, but seldom survives.  The female’s estrus cycle remains suppressed until lactation has ceased.

Sexual Maturity
Male sugar gliders can sexually mature as early as 4 months of age or as late as 8 months of age.  Females sugar gliders sexually mature at a slower rate than males, usually between 6 months of age up to a year.  Due to the rapid maturation process of the males, it is recommended that when developing a breeding pair the female sugar glider should be roughly 2 to 4 months older than the male glider she is matched with.  Breeding matches made between young gliders of a similar age can result in quarreling between the two gliders as the male reaches sexual maturity before his cage mate.  In some cases it has been said that the newly mature male may go as for as to force his intentions upon the unwilling immature female.  However, under normal circumstances, sugar gliders will not breed until they have fully matured.  Male sugar gliders will eventually breed with any female that is housed in the same enclosure, including their own offspring.  In addition, male offspring that have reached sexual maturity will attempt to breed with other females in the enclosure as well, including its own mother.  Fights between sexually mature males and undesirable inbreeding will result.   Therefore, it is wise to remove young offspring prior to achieving their sexual maturity.

Reproduction
Humans reproduce in the placental mode, in which the offspring remains the mother’s womb until it is fully developed while receiving necessary nutrients through the umbilical cord and placental exchange.  Pregnant sugar gliders do not have a placenta and reproduce in the marsupial mode.  In the marsupial method of reproduction, the gestation period is much shorter with its 16-day duration and the offspring emerge only partially developed. At birth, the offspring referred to as a joey, measures only about the size of a grain of rice.  Unaided, the joey makes a treacherous five-minute journey to its mother’s pouch.  Too underdeveloped to suckle on its own, the mother’s nipple actually swells inside the joey’s mouth.  If the joey should become dislodged from the nipple, or fail to reach the mother’s pouch, it will most likely perish.  However, if both the voyage and attachment to its mother’s nipple are successful, the joey will continue to develop within the pouch over the next two months.  As the two-month mark approaches, the joey will slowly start to emerge from its mother’s pouch. After the joey has completely emerged, it will continue to nurse and external changes (such as the eyes opening, the ears extending, & the fur thickening) will become noticeable.  As the final stages approach, the joey also experiences both increased muscular control and improved muscle coordination.  Most joeys become fully weaned between 8 and 14 weeks out of pouch (oop).  The mammary glands of the female sugar glider are capable of secreting milk of various compositions throughout the lactation period that directly correspond to the joey’s stage of development.  From a nutritional aspect, it is imperative that the owner does not prematurely wean a joey.  In addition, a joey should never be hand-nursed unless its mother has rejected it or is unable to nurse to joey herself.  Intentionally separating a joey from its mother in order to hand-nurse is cruel.  This practice will only lead to a weaker joey, NOT a stronger bond.  Young joeys also learn from their parent gliders, much as we did from our parents when we were young.  Early separation cannot only lead to health problems for the joey, but it can adversely affect the socialization process as well. 

A Guideline to Responsible Breeding
     When responsibly breeding sugar gliders, great emphasis must be placed upon ensuring the parents well being in order to produce healthy joeys.   It is a balanced equation with several aspects combined and can also heavily rely upon the level of the breeder’s knowledge.  A successful outcome directly hinges on each particular sugar glider’s physical condition, emotional needs, environmental conditions, and nutritional balance throughout the entire breeding process.

A breeder should choose strong, healthy parents, that lack any undesirable genetic traits, to reproduce.  The physical conditions of the parents are of great importance.  The presence of parasites, either internal or external, can greatly weaken (or even kill) the parent or joey by removing valued nutrients from them.  Older or smaller female gliders may have a difficult time rearing a joey through all of its stages.  Potentially this could exhaust the mother to the point that she, or her joey, becomes ill.

It is of great benefit for a breeder to have a working knowledge of the marsupial mode of reproduction.  This can provide a greater understanding of a joey’s development during the periods of gestation and lactation and allow a breeder to better meet the mother’s nutritional demands during this time.  The mother glider will increase her normal food intake according to the demands placed upon her body while maintaining her offspring.  More food, possibly even separate feeding arrangements, will be required to allow both the female glider and the male glider to receive appropriate nourishment during this time.  The female also requires additional amounts of protein during the pregnancy and lactation and should be given an increased amount of mealworms to compensate. 

Knowledgeable breeders will not only take notice of a sugar glider’s physical well being, but they will observe a glider’s emotional well being too.  Neglected gliders will fall prey to depression.  This can cause a sugar glider to decrease activities such as eating, grooming, and exercise, placing both the adult glider and its offspring at risk of poor health.  However, an overzealous breeder can have an equally negative effect by providing too much attention. Relentless interruptions by a nervous, or excited, owner can also jeopardize the health of the joey and its parent.  This includes attempting to handle a joey too early in development and over handling a lactating mother.  The stress created in this type of situation can sometimes lead to extreme behavioral changes, for example: the mother glider killing, or even eating, her young.

Environmental issues are also of concern to an educated breeder.  The proper application of routine sanitation practices is important for all sugar gliders, especially pregnant or nursing mothers and their joeys.  Several types of parasites, diseases, and toxicity can be avoided by subscribing to a well thought out cleaning regimen.  Beyond the value of good sanitation, providing a safe cage environment is also important.  A sugar glider’s enclosure should be carefully scrutinized for any pitfalls that may lead to a traumatic injury occurring to either the parent glider or their joey.

By increasing our knowledge of sugar gliders, we become better able to ensure their good health throughout the breeding cycle. An understanding of how to properly combine and implement the preceding aspects will accurately determine the successfulness of any breeding program.  Overall, commonsense is the key to ensuring good health in expecting gliders and their offspring.

Caring For A Pregnant Sugar Glider and Her Young Joey:

Environmental and Dietary Factors To Consider
     When caring for a sugar glider joey there are several factors to take into account.  Most of these factors fall into one of two major categories.  These categories are Environmental and Dietary: 

Environmental and Dietary
The environmental factors are easily remedied when you know which matters require extra attention.  All cages containing joeys should be inspected for gaps or bent bars that would cause the spacing to exceed ½” and allow smaller joeys to escape.  I also recommend that any objects with points, peaks, or harsh edges be removed from the cage until the joey has been fully weaned and mastered their acrobatic skills. This is to help prevent injury from falling.  In addition, a soft object such as a stuffed animal can be placed under the nesting area in order to break the joey’s fall should it slip from the nest.  Privacy should be provided throughout the period of joey birthing and rearing.  An owner should be careful not to over handle their joeys.  One particular person in the presence of the mother glider should do handling, for short periods of time only, with freshly washed hands.  The cage should be placed in a warm, quiet, dimly lit place that is free of drafts.  Toys should be inspected for safety and the wodent wheel should be temporarily removed or blocked from moving, in order to prevent traumatic injuries from occurring.

Sanitation should be emphasized greater during this time period in an effort to avoid illnesses that could potentially be caused by an unclean cage environment.

            There are also dietary concerns that need to be addressed where joeys are concerned.  Since a sugar glider joey obtains most of its nutrients from its mother’s milk, it is imperative that the joey is not separated from its mother until it is fully weaned.  No special diet is required for the joey, however, the mother’s diet becomes of utmost importance during this time period.  Her diet should be well balanced containing a minimum of 60% protein, with the majority of the protein being delivered through insect sources, throughout the nursing and weaning process.  Gatorade can be served a little more frequently to boost the amount of electrolytes that the mother receives.  Food and water dishes can be moved closer to the nesting area to allow to parents, and joeys when ready, easier access to the food.  The level of water in the dishes should be kept at a low level during this time to protect accidental drowning.  Another water dish can be added to ensure proper availability in response to the lower water level.  Fruits and vegetables can be cut smaller during the weaning process, if desired, to allow the joeys smaller pieces for easier handling.  For those owners that feed Exotic Nutrition’s Premium Sugar Glider Diet as a staple, a joey version is available which also providing smaller pelleted pieces.

            Raising a sugar glider joey is a rewarding experience.  Fortunately, meeting the requirements of a baby sugar glider’s dietary and environmental needs is mostly common sense.  As long as an owner is addresses the potential pitfalls and concerns when raising a sugar glider joey, they should experience great success. 

If you desire to learn more about sugar glider reproduction and breeding, please visit the following links:

Marsupial Reproduction:

http://www.chaffeezoo.org/animals/marsupialsTheirWay.html

Reproductive Anatomy:

http://www.isga.org/informationcenter/HealthIssues/anatomy.htm
http://www.sugarmania.net/breeding.html

Stages of Development:

http://www.glideruniversity.org/joeystory/
http://www.geocities.com/gliderlove/joeygrowth.html
http://www.sugarglider.com/GliderPage/aramaic/repro.html

Licensing, Ethics and Tips:

http://www.skinhorse.net/gliders/breeding.html
http://www.worldwidesugarglidernetwork.com/colonizers_corner.htm
http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ac/
http://www.sugarmania.net/breeding.html
http://www.pawprintonline.com/central-other-breed.html